The proliferation of accessible data and our growing reliance on it presents a perennial challenge: how to find an appropriate balance between what is technically possible, what is legally permissible and what is societally acceptable [8]. Under the demands of the Covid-19 pandemic this challenge increased significantly—and in the future it will probably become more challenging yet.
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6 Council of Europe, Committee of experts on Internet Intermediaries (MSI-NET), 2018 report, p. 11 7 G. Fuster, Artificial Intelligence and Law Enforcement—Impact on Fundamental Rights, Study for the LIBE Committee (European Parliament), 2020, p. 41 8 EU Commission, White Paper on Artificial Intelligence: A European Approach to Excellence and Trust, 2020, 11; ICO says UK police must ‘slow down’ use of facial recognition https://www.computerweekly.com/feature/ICO-says-UK-police-must-slow-down-use-of-facial-recognition, 2019; The Guardian, Met's 'gang matrix' breached data laws, investigation finds, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/nov/16/met-police-gang-matrix-breached-data-laws-investigation-finds, 2018; Babuta et al. [1].
Guide on Article 8 of the European Convention on Human rights) https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/guide_art_8_eng.pdf.
Axel Springer AG v Germany Application 39954/08.See for example the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT Articles 7 & 8 and the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Article 8.
E.g. the Data Protection Act 2018 in the UK.See for example U.S. Const. Amend IV and the California Privacy Rights Act 2020; The Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) and Privacy & Data Protection Act 2014 (Victoria).
See for example S & Marper Application 30562/04; Digital Rights Ireland & Seitlinger Case C-293/12; Maximillian Schrems v Data Protection Commissioner Ireland (“Schrems I”) Case C-362/14; R (on the application of GC & C) v Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis [2011] UKSC 21; Perry v UK Application 63737/00.
See e.g. The General Data Protection Regulation European Union no. 2016/679.The storing of which amounts to an interference with subject’s private life under the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 8 (S. and Marper v United Kingdom loc cit.
von Hannover v Germany (no 2) Application 40660/08. Alkaya v Turkey Application 42811/06. M.N. & Others v San Marino Application 28005/12. Benedik v Slovenia Application 62357/14. The General Data Protection Regulation supra.GDPR loc cit. Article 30. For a US example see Massachusetts Standards for the Protection of Personal Information of Residents of the Commonwealth (201 CMR 1700).
Huber v. Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Case C-524/06.See Google Spain SL v Agencia Española de Protección de Datos & Gonzales, Case C-131/12, 13 May 2014.
GDPR loc cit., Article 17(2). Directive (EU) 2016/680. Replacing the former Article 29 Data Protection Working Party from 25 May 2018. 2016/1148 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 2016. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/topics/wfh-covid19?tab=articles [accessed 9 Sept 2020]. See e.g. World Health Organization Code of Ethics.E.g. EU Code of Police Ethics, Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers (2001), Recommendation Rec(2001)10 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on the European Code of Police Ethics, 19 September 2001 and https://www.college.police.uk/What-we-do/Ethics/Documents/Code_of_Ethics.pdf.
IEEE Code of Ethics, Policies, Section 7—Professional Activities, Article 7.8. See Pagallo [6].15 July 2020 https://en.unesco.org/news/unesco-launches-worldwide-online-public-consultation-ethics-artificial-intelligence accessed 25 July 2020; also https://journalismai.com/2019/05/25/beijing-ai-principles-beijing-academy-of-artificial-intelligence-2019/; European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies (EGE) focused in its report “Statement on Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and ‘Autonomous Systems” (2018) Report on “Statement on Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and ‘Autonomous Systems”.
For a graphic example see “A quest for accountability? EU and Member State inquiries into the CIA Rendition and Secret Detention Programme”, Directorate General for Internal Policies, Policy Dept C: Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, European Parliament, September 2015.
For example fines of up to 20 million euros or up to 4% of the total annual total annual turnover of the previous year.
See R (on the application of Hussain) v Secretary of State for Health & Social Care [2020] EWHC 1392; R (on the application of) Dolan & Others v Secretary of State for Health & Social Care; Secretary of State for Education [2020] EWHC 1786 Admin.
